IX Chemistry - Chapter 6 - States of Matter

States of Matter

Matter has three states:

1. Gas

2. Liquid

3. solid

These are physical states of matter. The three states of one matter may have different physical properties while their chemical properties are same. Water exists in three physical states solid (ice), liquid and gas(steam) has same chemical properties.

Kinetic Theory of Matter

The Kinetic theory was presented to explain the properties of gases and is called kinetic theory of gases. But this theory was also able to explain the composition of liquid and solid state of matter. So its is called Kinetic Theory of Matter.

According to Kinetic Theory of matter:

1. All matter is composed of atoms, molecules or ions.

2. These particles have kinetic energy due to which they are in the state of motion.

3. In gaseous state, these particles move in a straight line. They collide with one another and with the walls of container. In liquids the rate of their movement is very small but in solids, there is to and fro motion only.

4. Generally material particles can have three types of movements, i.e. translational, rotational and vibrational.

Solids

The state of matter which has definite shape and volume is called solid.

Properties of Solids

1. Definite Volume and Shape

The cohesive forces in solid substances are so strong that they keep their particles arranged in fixed positions. So due to restrict movements of particles, the solids have definite volume and shape.

2.Motion of Particles

The solid particles have vibrational motion only because these particles are held in fixed position by strong cohesive forces.

3. Effect of Heat

The physical state of solid substance can be changed by heating. On heating solid is converted to liquid and gaseous state. Heat increases the kinetic energy of the particles and they start vibrating at higher frequency. At a particular temperature the vibrational motions become fast that they overcome the cohesive forces and solid melts to liquid.

4. Melting Point

The temperature at which the solid is converted to liquid on heating is called melting point. At melting point, the particles of solid loose their means position and their arrangement. The solid collapses and turns to liquid.

5. Sublimation

The conversion of some solids directly into gaseous state on heating is called sublimation. Iodine, ammonium chloride and naphthalene change directly into vapour state upon heating.

Liquid

The state of matter having definite volume but indefinite shape is called liquid.

Properties of Liquid

1. Volume

Liquids have definite volume. In liquid particles are very close to one another and have cohesive forces among the particles. Due to the presence of cohesive forces, liquids have definite volume and keep their level as well.

2. Shape

Liquids do not have any specific shape. They adopt the shape of the container. The molecules of liquid are able to move. Due to this random motion the molecules of liquid do not have fixed position and as a result, a liquid does not have any specific shape.

3. Evaporation

Conversion of liquid into its vapours at any temperature is called evaporation. The molecules of liquid come to the surface of liquid and escape by overcoming cohesive forces. So liquid is converted to vapours at all temperature.

4. Boiling Point

The temperature of a liquid at which its vapour pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure is called boiling point.

Gas

The state of matter which does not have definite shape and volume is called gaseous state.

Properties of Gaseous State

1. Indefinite Volume and Shape

In gaseous state, the molecules have insignificant cohesive forces among themselves. They move very fast in all possible directions. As a result, a gas neither has fixed shape nor a fixed volume.

2. Kinetic Energy of the Particle of a Gas

Gas particles have very high kinetic energy as compared to liquid and solid state.

3. Pressure

The molecules of a gas are in the state of random motion. The molecules of gas not only collide with one another but also with the walls of the container in which they are enclosed. Due to their collision, the velocity of the molecules changes every moment. The pressure exerted by gas is also due to the collision of its molecules with the walls of the container.

4. Elastic Collision

The collision of gas molecules is elastic in nature which means that the total energy of the colliding molecules remains the same before and after the collision.

5. Kinetic Energy

The kinetic energy of molecules of gas is very high as compared with solid and liquid.

Diffusion

The movement of molecules from a higher concentration to a lower concentration is known as Diffusion.

If the concentration of molecules at a particular place is higher, they start moving towards a place where their concentration is lower. When the concentration of molecules at both the places becomes equal the process of diffusion stops.

Diffusion in Gases

The molecules of one gas can diffuse easily into the molecules of other gas. For example if an open bottle of a perfume is kept in a room, its smell will spread uniformly throughout the room. The liquid perfume present in the bottle volatilized slowly and its vapours diffuse through out the room.

Graham's Law of Diffusion

Scottish Chemist, Thomas Graham (1833) discovered that lighter gs can diffuse through porous pot faster than the heavier one. This is called Graham's Law of Diffusion.

Hydrogen being lighter gas will diffuse faster than oxygen or carbon dioxide.

Diffusion in Liquids

Liquid molecules can also diffuse because they have free movement. Since the molecules of liquid move comparatively slowly than gas molecule, their rate of diffusion are also lesser than gases.

Brownian Movement

Robert Brown (1927) discovered this phenomenon:

The free movement of the molecules of gases and liquid is called Brownian Movement."

When a pollen grain is put in water. The movement of pollen grain in water is observed by microscope. It is observed that pollen grain is continuously moving in all directions. This free movement of pollen grain was due to the free movement of water molecules. The colliding water molecules will also force pollen grain to move as well. The students can observe Brownian movement with the help of simple experiment.

Experiment

Put a drop of milk on a microscope slide and cover it with cover slip. Put it under microscope and observe it. You will see small particle of fat moving randomly in milk. The movement of fat particles is actually due to the movement of water molecules in milk.

Chapter 6- Kingdom Monera

BACTERIA

DISCOVERY

Bacteria was discovered by A.V. Leuwenhoek in 1676.

STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

Bacteria are smallest and simplest living organism measures from 0.2m to 2 micron in breadth and 2 to 10 micron in length. They are strictly unicellular but some species remain associated with each other after cell division and form colonies.

A generalized bacterial cell consists of following structures.

(1)FLAGELLA

They are extremely thin appendages, which originate from basal body, a structure in the cytoplasm beneath cell membrane. Flagella help in bacterial locomotion.

(2)PILLI

They are hollow, filamentous flagella like appendages, which help in conjugation but not in locomotion.

(3)CAPSULE

It is a protective sheath made up of polysaccharides and proteins. It provides greater pathogenicity and protects bacteria against phagocytosis.

(4) CELL WALL

Bacterial cell wall mostly made up of amino acids, sugar and chitin. It surrounds the cell membrane, determine shape and protects bacteria from osmotic lyses. Most bacteria have a unique macromolecule called Peptidoglycan in addition to it. Sugar molecules, teichoic acid, glyco proteins and lipo polysaccharide are also present.

(5)CELL MEMBRANE

• It is present inside the cell wall attached to it at few places containing many pores.

• It is made up of lipids and proteins.

• It acts as a respiratory structure.

(6)CYTOPLASM

Bacterial cytoplasm is granular containing many small vacuoles, glycogen particles and ribosomes.

(7)MESOSOMES

• These are the invaginations of the cell membrane into the cytoplasm.

• They are in the form of vesicles, tubules or lamella.

• They help in the DNA replication, cell division, respiration and export of enzyme.

(8)BACTERIAL HEREDITARY MATERIAL

• Bacterial hereditary material DNA is found as concentrated structures called Bacterial chromosomes or chromatin bodies. It is mostly scattered in the cytoplasm.

• A small fragment of extra chromosomal circular DNA, called Plasmid is also present.

FIGURE 6.1 (FROM TEXT BOOK)

CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA

ON THE BASIS OF SHAPE

On the basis of shape bacteria can be divided into four categories.

(1)COCCI

• These are spherical or rounded bacteria presents in the form of mono, diplo or streptococcus form.

• They are non-flagellated and cannot move from one place to another place.

FIGURE (FROM TEXT BOOK)

(2)BACILLI

• Bacilli are rod shaped bacteria, can be present in the form of diplo or streplobacilli.

• They may be flagellated and can move from one place to another.

FIGURE (FROM TEXT BOOK)

(3)SPIRILLA

• These are spiral or cork, screw shape bacteria also known as spirochetes.

• It includes chlamydia and rekettia.

FIGURE (FROM TEXT BOOK)

(4)VIBRIO OR COMMA

• These are slightly curved bacteria like vibrio cholera.

• They may be flagellated and can move.

ON THE BASIS OF RESPIRATION

On the basis of respiration bacteria can be divided into two main types.

(1)AEROBES

Require oxygen for respiration.

(2)ANAEROBES

Respire with out oxygen

Sub-classes of this classification are as follow:

(A)FACULTATIVE BACTERIA

Respire with or without oxygen.

(B)MICRO AEROPHILIC BACTERIA

Require low concentration of oxygen for growth

(C)OBLIGATE ANAEROBES

These bacteria only survive in absence of oxygen.

(D)FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES

These bacteria use oxygen but can respire with out it .

(E)OBLIGATE AEROBES

These bacteria only survive in the presence of oxygen.

ON THE BASIS OF NUTRITION

Bacteria can be divided into four main types on the basis of nutrition. Which are as follow.

(1)SAPROTROPHIC BACTERIA

• These bacteria depend on the dead organic matter for their nutrition.

• They are mostly present in the humus of soil and posses large number of enzymes that convert complex substances of humus to simpler compounds.

(2)SYMBIOTIC BACTERIA

• These bacteria are found associated with other living organism.

• They obtain their food from the host without harming it. E.g. Rizobium redicicola (Symbionts in the root nodules of pea family plants).

(3)PARASITIC BACTERIA

• These bacteria grow inside the tissues of other living organism

• They obtain food at the expense of their host.

• These bacteria lack certain complex system of enzymes therefore they usually depend upon host cell. E.g. Pneumococcus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Salmonella typhi.

(4)AUTOTROPHIC BACTERIA

• These bacteria can sythesize organic compound from simple inorganic substances.

Autotrophic bacteria can be divided into photosynthetic or chemosynthetic.

(A)PHOTOSYNTHETIC

• These bacteria contain green pigment chlorophyll, which is known as bacterial chlorophyll, or chlorobium chlorophyll.

• These pigments are present in mesosomes (invagination of the cell membrane in the cytoplasm)

• These bacteria utilize H2S during photosynthesis instead of water and liberate sulphur instead of oxygen.

sunlight

(B) CHEMOSYNTHETIC

• These bacteria obtain their energy from oxidation of some inorganic substances like iron, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur compounds.

LOCOMOTION IN BACTERIA

• Some bacteria can move from one place to another with the help of a wipe like structure flagella.

• Flagella allow bacteria to disperse into new habitats, to migrate towards nutrients and to leave unfavorable environment.

• Flagellated bacteria show orientation towards various stimuli, a behavior called Taxis.

• Some bacteria are chemo tactic, phototectic or magnetotatic.

GROWTH IN BACTERIA

In favorable conditions bacteria can grow, very rapidly. There are some factors affecting growth of bacteria such as Temperature, nutrient availability, PH and ion concentration. Bacterial growth can be divided into four main phases, which are as follows

(1)LAG PHASE

It is inactive phase during which bacteria prepare them for division.

(2)LOG PHASE

In this phase bacteria grow and multiply very rapidly.

(3)STATIONARY PHASE

In this phase bacterial multiplication is equal to bacteria death rate.

(4)DECLINE/DEATH PHASE

In this phase death is more rapid then multiplication rate.

REPRODUCTION IN BACTERIA

Usually asexual reproduction is present in bacteria which is as follow

FISSION

Fission is the fastest mode of bacterial asexual reproduction (Binary Fission)

• It usually takes place in favorable conditions.

• Hereditary material DNA in the form of chromatin body replicates.

• After the replication of hereditary material a constriction appears in the middle of the cell, which later splits it into two parts.

• Newly form bacterial cells grow in size and form nature bacterial cells.

• The single fission takes place in 20-30 minutes.

ENDOSPORE FORMATION

• It is the method of bacterial survival under unfavorable conditions. Following are the main characters of this process.

• During this process, the whole protoplasmic content gets shrink into a small mass.

• A cyst is formed inside the parental wall around constricted protoplasm to form endospore.

• On the return of favorable conditions parental wall raptures due to decay and endospore is set free.

• In the end, this endospore enlarges to form a mature bacterial cell.

FIGURE 6.4 (BINARY FISSION IN BACTERIA)

FIGURE 6.5 (FORMATION OF ENDOSPORE)

GENETIC RECOMBINATION IN BACTERIA

Genetic changes with the help of which bacteria adopt new characteristics (drugs resistance pathogenic ability) is known as Genetic recombination

Three types of genetic recombination are present in bacteria, which are given as follow.

1.CONJUGATION

Simple process of genetic recombination in which genetic material is transferred from one bacteria to another through a conjugating tube. Conjugation in bacteria was discovered by Joshua Lederburg and Edward L.Tatum in 1946

EXPERIMENT

J.laderberg and E.Tatum performed an interesting experiment in order to prove conjugation in bacteria. Following are the main steps of this experiment.

1. They selected a wild type bacteria (E-coli) and obtain (triple nutritional mutants) different from one another.

2. Wild-type was capable of synthesizing six substances symbolized as A, B, C, D, E and F.

3. Mutant type I was capable of synthesizing three substances symbolized as A, B and C but not D, E and F.

4. Mutant type II was capable of synthesizing three substances D,E and F but not A,B and C.

5. These mutant type I and II were grown together in the growth medium having all the six substances A, B, C, D, E and F.

6. After several hours, three types of bacteria were detected after nutritional test which were,

i. Both mutant I and mutant II types.

ii. Wild type bacteria synthesizing all the six substances.

iii. A new type of bacterial strain requiring all the six substances for growth.

In this experiment, appearance of wild type and one new type is an evidence that conjugation had taken place.

2. TRANSDUCTION

It is the mode of genetic recombination in which genetic material is transferred from one bacteria to another by a third party, which is usually bacteriophage.

This process was experimentally carried out by Lederberg and Zinder in 1952.

EXPERIMENT

1. In this experiment, a bacteriophage is made to attack a bacterium known as “donor” (D).

2. The injected DNA of bacteriophage multiply to form a large number of daughter phages.

3. The donor bacterium (D) gives some of its genetic material “D” to the multiplying particles.

4. The phages released from this donor bacterium contain the genetic material of phage plus a little piece of the donor genetic material “D”.

5. These new phages then made to attack a new bacterium known as “Recipient” (R).

6. These recipient bacterium is not destroyed like the donor in order to reproduce normally. In this way, genetic material of the donor bacterium is carried to the recipient bacterium by a bacteriophage and this process is known as Transduction.

3. TRANSFORMATION

In this process, genetic information transfers from one bacteria to another by producing a change it (undergo a change).

This type of genetic recombination was first proved by Fred Griffith in 1928.

EXPERIMENT

• Griffithi injected a small quantity of R-type bacteria and a large quantity of heat killed S-type bacteria into the same mouse.

• This treatment proved fatal as mouse surprisingly suffered from Pneumonia and died.

• The autopsy of the mouse revealed the presence of living S-type bacteria in the mouse in addition to R-type.

From this experiment Griffith concluded that,

• The live R-type bacteria had been transformed into live S-type bacteria due to transfer of some material from dead S-type, cells.

• Thus this transformation occurred due to genetic recombination in R-type bacteria.

In his experiment, he had been working on two strains of bacteria “Pnemococcus”. One strain is known as smooth type (Virulent and causes Pneumonia) while the second strain is known as (Rough type (Non-Virulent and does not cause pneumonia).

NOTE: (IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA (USEFUL AND HARMFUL BACTERIA)FROM BOOK PAGE # 116 (OLD BOOK – 2003)

VACCINATION

DEFINITION

Inoculation of host with inactive or weaken pathogens or pathogenic products to stimulate protective immunity.

• In case of subsequent natural infection with the same pathogen the immune system easily recognized the invader and comfortably managed to overcome the pathogen.

• A vaccine can taken orally (Polio vaccine) or injected into the body (Tetanus Vaccine).

IMMUNIZATION

DEFINITION

It is a process of induction of specific immunity by injecting antigens, antibodies or immune cells.

• Immunity can be protective or curative in nature.

• It promotes increased immunity against specific diseases.

CYNOBACTERIA (BLUE GREEN ALGAE)

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF CYNOBACTERIA

• They are prokaryotic unicellular autotrophic organisms mostly occur in colony form.

• They posses double layered cell wall.

• The protoplasm differentiated into an outer colored region chromoplasm, which contain various pigments in which chlorophyll “a” and phycocyanin are more important.

• Inner colorless region of the protoplasm is known as centroplasm.

• They are mostly aquatic (fresh water)

• Sexual reproduction is absent.

• Asexual reproduction takes place by means of Harmogonia, zoospores, akinates and fragmentation.

NOSTOC

• Nostoc is a typical example of blue green algae.

STRUCTURE

• Nostoc is a filamentous prokaryotic algae in which filaments are intermixed in a glatinous mass-forming ball like structure known as coenobium.

• A single filament look like a chain of beads.

• Each filament is unbranched and has a single row of rounded or oval cells.

• Each cell has double layered wall, outer thick wall is made up of cellulose mixed up with pectic compounds. While inner thin layer is made up of cellulose only.

• The protoplasm is differentiated into an outer colored region (chromoplasm) and an inner colorless region (centroplasm).

• The chromoplasm various pigments like chlorophyll, axanthophylls, carotene, phycocyanin and phycoerythrin.

• Ribosome’s, pseudovacuoe and reserve food in the form of cynophyceae starch are present.

• Hereditary material is present in cytoplasm with out the nuclear membrane.

• In Nostoc filaments slightly larger, colorless cells with thick walled known as “Heterocyst” are present. The function o Heterocyst is nitrogen fixation, food storage and multiplication of filament during unfavorable conditions.

NUTRITION

• It is an autotroph and prepares its food in the presence of sunlight.

• It also capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen and converts it into nitrates in order to prepare amino acids and proteins, this activity takes place in Heterocysts.

REPRODUCTION

• Only asexual reproduction is present which takes place by following methods.

(1)HORMOGONIA

• A portion of the filaments between two heterocysts is known as Hormogonia.

• During favorable conditions, filaments break up at the junction of each Heterocyst.

• The end cells of each homogonous divide to form long filaments of Nostoc.

(2)AKINETES

• It is the method of survival during unfavorable conditions.

• These are non-motile spores, formed from certain vegetative cells.

• Each akinete contains an outer layer “exospore” and inner layer “endospores”.

• On the return of favorable conditions, each akinete germinates by rupturing exospore and formed independent filaments by simple cell division.

IMPORTANCE OF CYNOBACTERIA

• They release oxygen as a by-product during photosynthesis.

• Many are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen.

• They are first colonizers of moist soil.

• Nostoc anabena is used as nitrogen fertilizer in agriculture due to its nitrogen fixing ability.

MONERA

• Discovery of bacteria A.V.Leuventoek.

• Size of bacteria = 0.2-2 micron (breadth)

• = 2-10 micron (length).

• Cell wall of bacteria made up of peptidoglycan.

• Arch bacteria do not contain peptidoglycan.

• Bacterial replications, cell division, respiration, export of enzymes = By means of mesosomes (invaginations of cell membrane)

• Saprophytic bacteria form humus (important component of soil)

• Photosynthetic bacteria = use H2S in photosynthesis instead of water.

• Chlorobium chlorophyll or bacterial chlorophyll discovered by Von Nell 1930.

DIVERSITY OF LIFE

• Father of taxonomy = Charles Linneus.

• Genetics = final tool in classifying living organism.

• Basic unit of Biological classification = species.

• Five kingdom system of Robert Whittaker = 1969.

• Discovery of Virus = Iwanosky 1892.

• TMV Virus discover by Wendell Stanley in 1935.

• Size of Virus = 20nm-250nm.

• AIDS is caused by Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV)

• As a result of lytic cycle of bacterio phage 100-200 daughter phage viruses are produced.

IX English - Chapter 6 - Allama Iqbal

Question and Answers

Q.1 When and where was Allama Iqbal born?

Ans. Allama Mohammad Iqbal, the poet of the East, was born in Sialkot, a town in the Punjab on 9th Nov, 1877.

Q.2 When did Allama Iqbal die?

Ans. Allama Iqbal; died in 1938, and could not see the actual creation of Pakistan although he had played a major role in its creation.

Q.3 Write about the education of Allama Iqbal?

Ans. He received his early education in his home town. In 1985, he went to Government College, Lahore. He passed his M.A. in 1899 from the University of Punjab. In the same year he was appointed Professor of Arabic at the Oriental College, Lahore. As held his job till 1905. In 1905 he left for England for higher studies. In London he received a Law Degree. In 1908, he was awarded a degree of Ph.D by Munich University, for his work on Persian philosophy. He is also known as Dr. Mohammad Iqbal.

Q.4 Write in three to four sentences the important years of 1877, 1930, 1938 in Allama Iqbal's life.

Ans.

1877

Allama Iqbal the poet o the east, was born in Sialkot on 9th November 1877.

1930

In 1930, Allama Iqbal presided over the Allahabad meeting of the All India Muslim Leage. Here he made a definite demand for a separate Muslim state in South Asia.

1938

Allama Iqbal died in 1938 and could not see the actual creation of Pakistan although he worked very hard for its creation.

Q.5 What did Allama Iqbal write to the Quaid-e-Azam in May 1937?

Ans. Allama Iqbal in his letter to Quaid-e-Azam discussed in detail the problems of Indian Muslims and advised that only the creation of a separate Muslim state could solve these problems.

Q.6 What were the contents of Allama Iqbal's letter of 21 June 1937 to Quaid?

Ans. On 21 June 1937, Allama Iqbal wrote a letter to the Quaid in which he stated that, a separate state of Muslim provinces, formed on the lines he had proposed, was the only way by which they could have a peaceful India and save the Muslims of India from the troubles created by non-Muslims.

Q.7 What was Quaid's message on the death of Allama Iqbal? or How did Quaid-e-Azam praise Iqbal's role in the message on his death?

Ans. Allam Iqbal died in 1938. On his death, the Quaid-e-Azam sent a message in which he called him a guide, friend and philosopher. He praised Iqbal for standing like a rock during the difficulties and troubles, which the Muslim league had to face which fighting the rights of the Indian Muslims.

Q.8 What was the results of Allama Iqbal efforts?

Ans. The result of Allama Iqbal efforts was that he woke the Muslims from their sleep and make them realize that the solution to all their problems was the creation of a separate Muslim state in India.

Q.9 Write in three to four sentences about the political life of Allama Iqbal from 1926-1930?

Ans. Allama Iqbal was elected a member of Punjab legislative council in 1926 and held this office till 1929. He was then selected as the President of the Punjab branch of the All India Muslim League. and held that important office till his death in 1938.

Q.10 Write three to four lines about the accomplishments of Allama Iqbal.

Ans. Allama Iqbal is known as a great poet. He was well-versed in philosophy both Eastern and Western. He devoted a great part of his life to the study of Islam. He als otook an active part in politics. He worked for Muslims of South Ashia with great courage.

Q.11 Mention any three points of Allama Iqbal's Allahabad's Address?

Ans. In 1930, Allama Iqbal presided over the Allahabad meeting of the All India Muslim League:

1. On this historic occasion, he made a definite demand for a separate Muslim state in South Asia.

2. India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races, speaking different languages and believing in different religions.

3. The principle of European democracy cannot be applied to Indian without recognizing the fact of different groups.

4. Punjab, north West Frontier Province, Sindh and Baluchistan be united urdu a single Muslim State.

Q.12 Why did Allama Iqbal want a separate state for the Muslims of India?

Ans. Allama Iqbal wanted a separate homeland for the Muslims of the sub-continent, for they were a separate nations, with their own culture, customers, literature and religion.

He wanted then to live in the state where they were free to follows the Islamic teachings and Quranic laws and would conduct their own foreign policy, plan their economic life, pressure and develop their own culture.