Transport - XI Zoology
Transport - Circulatory System
HUMAN HEART
INTRODUCTION
Heart, the most powerful organ in the circulatory system is conical, hollow & muscular organ, situated in middle mediastinum.
POSITION OF HEART
Heart lies in the thoracic cavity between the lungs slightly towards left, enclosed with in ribcage with the sternum in front & vertebral column behind.
SIZE & WEIGHT
The heart measures about 3 ½ Inches & weighs about 300 gm in males & 250 gm in females.
MAIN FUNCTION OF HEART
Heart works continuously like a muscular pump & pumps the blood to various parts of the body to meet their nutritive requirements.
COVERING OF HEART PERICARDIUM
Heart is surrounded by a double layered pericarcdium. The outer layer is called Fibrous pericardium & inner layer is called as serous pericardium.
PERICARDIAL FLUID
Fluid is secreted in b/w the two layers of pericardium which is known as pericardial fluid.
FUNCTION
Pericardial fluid acts as LUBRICANT & reduces friction b/w heart walls & surrounding tissues during beating of heart.
STRUCTURE OF HEART
Human heart consists of four chambers.
CHAMBERS OF HEART
1. RIGHT ATRIUM
Right Atrium is the right upper chamber of heart & acts as thin walled low pressure pump.
OPENINGS (INLETS) OF RIGHT ATRIUM
1. Superior Vena Cava
2. Anfenior Vena Cava
3. Coronary Sinus
FUNCTION
It receives venous blood from the whole body & pump it to the right ventricle through the right atrioventricular (tricuspid opening) valve.
2. LEFT ATRIUM
Left atrium is upper triangular chamber which is present posteriorly. It also acts as low pressure pump.
OPENINGS (INLETS) OF LEFT ATRIUM
Two pairs of pulmonary veins.
FUNCTION
It receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through 4 pulmonary veins and pumps it to the left ventricle through the left atrioventricular orifice (mitral or bicuspid).
3. RIGHT VENTRICLE
Right ventricle is the right lower chamber of heart, which is triangular in shape.
OPENINGS OF RIGHT VENTRICLE
- Tricuspids valve
- Pulmonary Aorta through pulmonary valve.
THICKNESS OF WALL
- The wall of right ventricle is thinner than that of left ventricle in a ratio of 1:3
SIZE OF CAVITY
Cavity of right ventricle is broader than left because of thin muscular walls, and both of these features are due to the fact that right ventricle has to pump the blood into lungs only against low pressure system (i.e. pulmonary circulation).
FUNCTION
Right ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from right Atrium and pumps it to the lungs through pulmonary aorta for oxygenation.
4. LEFT VENTRICLE
Left ventricle is the most thick walled chamber and forms the apex of heart.
OPENING OF LEFT VENTRICLE
- Bicuspid or Mitral valve
- Systemic Aorta through aortic valve.
THICKNESS OF WALL
The walls of left ventricle are 3 times thicker than those of right ventricle. Blood pressure is 6 times high.
SIZE OF CAVITY
The cavity of left ventricle is narrower than the right ventricle because of more muscular walls. It is due to the fact that left ventricle has to pump the blood to the entire body against high pressure system (Systemic Circulation).
FUNCTION
It receives oxygenated blood from left atrium & pumps it into the aorta.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF VENTRLES
Interior of ventricles show two parts
1. Rough in flowing part
2. Smooth out flowing part
1. ROUGH PART
TRABECULAE CARNEAE
Inflowing part of each ventricle is rough due to presence of muscular ridges called as Trabeculae carneae.
2. SMOOTH PART
Out flowing part of each ventricle is smooth which gives origin to pulmonary trunk in right ventricle & Ascending Aorta in left ventricle.
PAPILLARY MUSCLES
Papillary muscles are the type of Trabeculae carneae being attached by their bases to ventricular walls, & their apices are connected to, the cusps of valves through chorda tendinae.
CHORDA TENDINAE:
These are delicate fibrous chords, which connect the papillary muscles to the cusps of Atriovertritcular valves.
FUNCTION
Chorda Tendinae don’t left the valves open back into the atria when the ventricles contract.
SEPTUM OF HEART
1. INTERATRIAL SEPTUM
Internally, the right & left atria are separated by a vertical membranous septum called as Interatrial septum.
2. INTERVENTRICULAR SEPTUM:
The right & left verticals are also separated by a thick muscular septum called as Interventricular septum.
3. ATRIOVENTRICULAR SEPTUM
Atria lie above & behind the ventricles & are separated from ventricles by Atrioven-tricular septum.
HEART VALVES
Heart possesses two types of valves, which regulate the flow of blood with in the heart.
TYPES OF HEART VALVES
1. Atrioventricular valves -> Bicuspid, Tricuspid
2. Semilunar vlaves -> Aortic valve, Pulmonary valve
1. ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES
INTRODUCTION
Valves, which are present in b/w the Atria & ventricles are called Atrioventricular valves.
TYPES OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR VALVES
They are of two types.
1. Bicuspid or Mitral
2. Tricuspid.
1. BICUSPID OR MITRAL VALVE
Blood flows from left Atrium to the left ventricle through left atrioventricular on orifice, which is guarded by bicuspid or Mitral valves.
CUSPS
It has tow (2) cusps so it is called as bicuspid.
2.TRICUSPID VALVE
Blood flows from right Atrium to the Right ventricle through right Atrioventricular orifice, which is guarded by Tricuspid.
CUSPS
It has 3 cusps so it is called as TRICUSPID.
2. SEMILUNAR VALVES
This is the second category of heart valves, which guard the emergence of pulmonary & systemic Aorta.
TYPES OF SEMILUNAR VALVES
It has Two Types:
1. Aortic Valve
2. Pulmonary Valve
1. AORTIC VALVE==
This valve guards the Aortic orifice in left ventricle
CUSPS
It consists of 3 Semilunar cusps.
2. PULMONARY VALVE
This valve guards the pulmonary orifice in right ventricle.
CUSPS
It also consists of 3 semi lunar cusps.
FUNCTIONS OF VALVES
Heart valves maintain unidirectional flow of the blood & prevents its regurgitation in the opposite direction.
Transport - Circulation of Blood
CARDIAC CYCLE
Sequence of events which take pace during completion of one heart beat is called “Cardiac Cycle”
PHASES
(I) DIASTOLE
It is resting period of heart chambers.
II) SYSTOLE
During which heart’s chambers contract. In cardiac cycle, blood is circulated in whole body.
TYPES OF CIRCULATION
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
In pulmonary circulation following events take place.
RT. ATRIAL SYSTOL
First the blood from whole systems of body, except lungs enter in right Atrium through superior and Inferior vena cavae into the right atrium by atiral systole, blood comes into right ventricle from right atrium via Tricuspid valve.
RT. VENTRICLE SYSTOLE
After coming of blood into the Rt. Ventricle, it goes to the lungs via pulmonary trunk by ventricular systole, for oxygenation of blood by passing through pulmonary valve.
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
In systemic circulation, following events take place.
LEFT ATRIAL SYSTOLE
When oxygenated blood comes into left atrium, then left atrial sytole causes blood to enter left ventricle through bicuspid valve
LEFT VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE
When blood reaches here it sends into aorta through aortic valve to provide blood to body systems.
CARDIAC OUTPUT
The blood volume pump per minute by left ventricle into the systemic circulation
HEART BEAT
The contraction of heart chambers are known heart beat which are regular, rhythmic.
Ventricular systole is LUB
Ventricular diastole is DUB
TIME FOR HEART BEAT
0.8 sec is time for one heart beat.
CONDUCTING SYSTEM OF HEART
It consists of
1.AV-NODE
2.SA-NODE
3)AV-BUNDLE
4) PURKINJI FIBERS.
1. SA-NODE
SA NODE found near upper end of superior vena cava in RT. atrium
PARTS
1. Specialized cardiac Muscles.
2. Autonomic Nerve endings.
FUNCTIONS
It Initiates the contraction of heart chambers through impulses & also transmit to AV node.
2. AV- NODE
It is found in lower end of RT. Atrium. Structurally it is smilar to SA-NODE
FUNCTION
It transmit nerve impulses to ventricles for contraction rhythmically.
3. AV-BUNDLE
AV BUNDLE are the fibers originate from AV node. The bundle divided into Right AV bundle, Left AV bundle
FUNCTION
It transmit nerve impulses to ventricles.
4. PURKINJI FIBERS
AV bundles red divided into small fibres which penetrate the ventricle wall also known as purkinji fibers / Bundle of His small thin fibers.
LEUKEMIA
DEFINATION
“The malignant disorder of increase number of abnormal leucocytes in blood.”
CAUSE
The cause of leukemia is unknown.
FACTORS
Factors associated with leukemia are
- Ionizing Radiation
- Cytotoxic drugs.
- Retroviruses.
- Genetic
EFFECTS OF DISEASE
- In result of leukemia, normal leucocytes counts become less.
- This is progressive, and fatal condition which leads to heamorrhage or infection
THALASSEMIA
DEFINITION
“Genetically impaired globin chains formation leads to impaired or defected formation of hemoglobin.”
GENETIC DISEASE
Thalassemia is a genetic disorder, it may be
1. Hetrozygous /Mild thalassemia:
2. Homozygous.
TYPE
- BETA - Thalassemia
- α - Thalassemia
BETA-THALASSEMIA
When globin chain is impaired or defected. It is most common one.
ALPHA-THALASSEMIA
when α-thalassemia globin chain of (HB) hemoglobin is defected.
KINDS OF THALASSEMIA
THALASSEMIA MINOR
When thalassemia is of heterozygous type with mild anemia.
THALASSEMIA MAJOR
When thalassemia is of homozygous type with profound hypochromic anemia. It is more common in children & results with enlargement of kidney.
REMEDY
The only remedy is transfusion of blood at regular intervals.
CVD CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE
Diseases of heart, blood vessels and blood circulation are generally term as CVD.
ATHEROSCLEROSIS
The disease of arterial wall with lose of elasticity, thickness of inner wall causing narrowing of lumen, results in impairing of blood flow.
ATHEROMATOUS PLAQUES
The narrowing is due to formation of fatty lesions called atheromatous plaque in inner lining of arteries.
COMPONENTS OF PLAQUE
These plaques consist of
- LDL-LOW DENSITY LIPO PROTEINS
- DECAYING MUSCLES CELLS
- FIBROUS TISSUE
- PLATELETES
- CLUMP OF BLOOD
CAUSES
Smoking, Hypertension, Obesity, Diabetes (Severe), family history of arterial disease
EFFECTS
Atherosclerosis produces no symptoms until the damage to artery is so severe that it restricts blood flow.
ANGINA PECTORIS
If blood flow to heart muscles is restricted causes (cell damage) necrosis called angina pectoris. Pain in chest, arm, or jaws usually during exercise.
THROMBUS FORMATION
The formation of blood clot with in the intact blood vessel initiated by atheromatous plaque.
REASON FOR THROMBUS FORMATION
Due to formation athromatous plaque loss of elasticity, intact blood vessel get destroyed, blood from vessel wall comes out & later change to blood clot and blocks the lumen of small arteries.
RESULT OF THROMBUS FORMATION
Initially thrombus block the lumen partially result in decrease blood flow to organs & leading to impairment of physiology of organs. Later on, thrombus blocks the lumen completely so due to complete loss of blood supply, cells damage occur.
CORONARY THROMBOSIS
Type of thrombosis when narrowing of lumen occurs in coronary blood vessels due to formation of clot.
EFFECT
Occulsion of coronary atery causes myocardial infarction and heart attack.
HEAMORRHAGE
The escaping of blood from intact blood vessels.
==STROKE Most dangerous type of heamorrhage is that of brain which results in paralysis or strokes.
HAEMATOMA
The accumalation of blood in interstitial spaces known as haematoma.
This will lead to edema.
STROKE
DEFINITION
The damage to the part of brain caused by, restriction in blood supply or leakage of blood outside the vessels.
CHARACTERISTICS
Impairment of sensation, movement & function controlled by damage part of brain.
CAUSES
- Hypertension
- Atherosclerosis
HEMIPLEGIA
Damage to any, one cerebral hemisphere can cause weakness or paralyses of one side of body called hemiplegia
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
Blood pressure should be with in normal range through proper diet. Salt should be used in less quantities exercise should be the regular habit. Smoking must be avoided. Person life should be free of worries.
BLOOD VESSELS
DEFINITION
"The closed vessels or tubes through which transporting medium or blood circulate with in body called “blood vessels”.
TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS
1. Arteries.
2. Capillaries.
3. Veins.
ARTERIES
DEFINITION
Thick walled blood vessels which carry blood from heart to the organs of body.
LAYERS
It consists of three layers.
1. Tunica Externa/ Adventitia
2. Tunica Media
3. Tunica Intima
1-TUNICA EXTERNA
It is thin but tough layer, having abundant amount of collagen fibers. It is outer most layer.
2-TUNICA MEDIA
The middle layer has smooth muscle fibers & elastin fibers. It is the thickest layer.
3-TUNICA INTIMA
It consists of squamous endothelium.
LUMEN
Thick walled vessels & having smaller lumen than that of veins except arteries of brain & related to cranium having large lumen.
SEMILUNAR VALVES
They are not present in arteries.
BRANCHES - DIVISIONS
Aorta divides into large arteries, large arteries into smaller arteries, smaller arteries into arterioles, then they give rise to capillary.
At arteriole level, small sphincters are present which are known as PRE-CAPILLARY SPHINCTER.
SPHINCTER
FUNCTION
They are for regulating the diastolic pressure.
CHARACTERSTICS
- Arteries are elastic so during systolic pressure, they do not rupture and dilate.
- During ceasement/ stopage of systolic pressure of heart, arteries contract & supply even flow of blood.
- The arteries carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary arteries.
VEINS
DEFINITION
The thin walled blood vessels that drian blood from body parts/organs into heart called veins.
LAYERS
- Tunica Externa
- Tunica Media
- Tunica Intima
1. TUNICA EXTERNA
Thickest layer in veins. It contains collagen, elastin and smooth muscles cells.
2. TUNICA MEDIA
Not thicker as that of arteries. Elastic tissues and small smooth muscle.
3. TUNICA INTIMA
Contains endothelial cells layer.
LUMEN
It has large lumen and thin wall.
SEMILUNAR VALVES
They are present in veins to prevent back flow of blood in the influence of gravity.
TRIBUTARIES
Veninules -> small veins -> large veins -> vena cava.
BLOOD PRESSURE
In veins blood pressure is low and are non pulsatile.
CHARACTERISTICS
The blood flows slowly and smoothly in veins. Veins are superficial and collapse when empty.
CAPILARIES
The intimate microscopic closed channels of both arterial & veinous interconnected network is called capillaries.
DIAMETER
Capillaries are extremely narrow in diameter of about 7-10 μ.
LAYERS
Capillaries are thin walled vessels & contains single layer of endothelium which offers small resistance in transport of material across the capillary wall.
FUNCTION
Through diffusion and active transport of oxygen is transported to tissues & CO2 to capillaries. Nitrogenous waste is filtered through the capillaries into excretory tubules.
BLUE BABIES (CYANOSIS)
Blue baby is a layman terminology. In medical science it is known as cyanosis.
DEFINITION
The term cyanosis” means the blueish discolouration of the skin & mucous membrane due to excessive cone of reduced (deoxygenated haemoglobin) in the blood & it appears when reduced Hb conc in capillaries is more than 5 gm/dl of blood. The reduced Hb has an intense dark blue purple colour that is transmitted through the skin.
MOST COMMON CAUSE OF CYANOSIS
Although there are various other causes of cyanosis but the most common cause is CONGENITAL CYANOTIC HEART DISEASE.
BASIC CAUSE OF CYANOSIS
In congenital heart diseases, there is an abnormal connection b/w right and left side of heart, which permits the large amount of unoxygenated venous blood to bypass the pulmonary capillaries & dilute the oxygenated blood in systemic arteries i.e RIGHT TO LEFT SHUNT, which results in cyanosis.
SOME EXAPLES OF CONGENITAL HEART DISEASES
- Some congenital heart diseases which are responsible for the abnormal connection between right and left sides of heart are as follows.
- ATRIAL SEPTUM DEFECT (ASD)
- VENTRICULAR SETPUM DEFECT (VSD)
- PERSISTANT DUCTUS ARTEROSUS
- In all these conditions, blood begins to flow from the aorta (left side) into pulmonary arteries (right side) & the people donot show cyanosis until late in life when heart fails or lungs become congested.
TETRALOGY OF FALLOT (RIGHT –TO-LEFT SHUNT)
It is the most common cause of cyanosis or blue baby in which aorta originates from right ventricles rather than left & receives deoxygenated blood.
Transport - Lymphatic System
DEFINITION
A System of blind vessels (lymphatic) that drains lymph from all over the body back into blood stream is called lymphatic system OR Lymphatic System is essentially a drainage system, which reinforces the venous drainage. There is no circulation i.e it is a unidirectional flow towards heart.
MAIN FUNCTION OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
All body tissues are bathed in a watery fluid derived from the blood stream. This intercellular or tissue fluid is formed when blood passes trough the capillaries. The capillary walls are permeable to all components of blood except the R.B.C’s & blood proteins. The fluid passes from the capillary into the intercellular spaces as the inter-cellular or tissue fluid. About 85% of the tissue fluid returns into the blood at the venous end of capillary. The rest 15 % of tissue fluid drains into lymphatic capillaries as lymph along with W.B.C’s, cell debris & micro organism like Bacteria , are transported back to the heart through lymphatic system.
COMPONENTS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Lymphatic System Consists of
1. Lymph
2. Lymphatic tissues
3. Lymphatic vessels or Lymphatics
4. Lymph nodes (type of lymphatic tissue)
DETAILS OF COMPONENTS
1. LYMPH
DEFINITION
“Lymph is the name given to the tissue fluid once it has entered a lymphatic vessel. OR It can be defined as “Colour less body fluid that contains lymphocytes (agranular WBC’S), small proteins & fats”.
EXPLANATION
Lymph is a medium of exchange between blood & body cells. It takes the fluid substances from cell of tissues & intercellular spaces, which cannot penetrate the blood capillaries.
2.LYMPHATIC TISSUES
DEFINITION
“Lymphatic tissues are a type of connective tissues that contain large no. of lymphocytes”
ORGANS THAT CONTAIN LYMPHATIC TISSUES
Lymphatic tissue is organized into following structures (organs).
- Lymph nodes
- Thymus
- Spleen
- Tonsils
- Some of the patches of tissues in vermiform appendix & in small intestine.
FUNCTION
3. LYMPHATICS
DEFINITION
Lymphatic vessels or lymphatics are blind tubes that assist the cardiovascular system in removal of tissue fluid from tissues spaces of the body, the vessels then return the fluid to the blood.
AREAS WHERE LYMPHATIC ARE NOT PRESENT:
Lymphatics are present in all tissues & organs of the body except.
- Central Nervous System
- The eye ball
- Internal Ear
- Epidermis of Skin
- Cartilage & bone
TYPES
Two Types of Lymphatics are there:-
SMALL - LYMPH CAPILLARIES
LARGE - LYMPH VESSELS.
1. LYMPH CAPILLARIES
DEFINITION
“Lymph capillaries are a network of thin walled, anastomosing, microscopic vessels which are closed towards the tissue sinuses & drain the Lymph from tissues."
2. LYMPH VESSELS
DEFINATION
The capillaries are in turn drained by lymph tubes having larger diameters & beaded appearance, called the Lymph vessels.
These vessels contain smooth muscles in them as well as Internal valves to prevent the back flow of Lymph. The Lymph circulates through the Lymph vessels by the contraction of surrounding skeletal muscles in one direction (towards the heart). These vessels converge into collecting ducts i.e right
Lymphatic duct & thoracic duct that drain into large veins at the root of neck.
4. LYMPH NODES
DEFINITION
“Lymph nodes are lymphoid tissue which are present through out the course of Lymphatics, through which the lymph must passes”
INTERNAL STRUCTURE
Each node consists of a thin, fibrous, outer capsule & an inner mass of lymphoid tissue.
AFFERENT VESSELS
Several small Lymphatics which carry the lymph into the lymph node are referred to as “Afferent vessels.”
EFFERENT VESSEL
A single large vessel which carry the lymph away from the node is called “Efferent vessel”
FUNCTION
Lymph nodes act as filters that trap the microorganisms & other foreign bodies in the lymph. The Lymphocytes & macro-phages present here, neutralize & engulf the microorganisms, respectively.
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.
From Text Book Pg. 379.
EDEMA
DEFINITION
“Whenever the tissue fluid accumulates rather than being drained into the blood by the lymphatic system, tissue & body cavities become swollen. This condition is known as “Edema”.
TYPES OF EDEMA
There are two types of Edema.
1. INTRACELLULAR
2. EXTRACELLULAR
1. INTRACELLULAR EDEMA
“Accumulation of excess of fluid within the cells causing cellular swelling is called “Intra cellular Edema. It usually occurs after severe extracellular Edema.
2. EXTRACELLULAR EDEMA
"Excess fluid accumulation in extra cellular spaces is called Extracellular Edema. "
It is the most commonly occurring form of Edema.
FACTORS CAUSING EDEMA
Any factor that increases the tissue fluid high enough than normal value can cause excess tissue fluid volume causing edema. Some of these factor are as follows.
- High blood pressure
- Kidney failure
- Hart failure & etc.
CAUSES OF EDEMA
Following are three main causes of Edema.
1. HYPOPROTEINEMIA (SEVERE DIETARY PROTEIN DEFICIENCY)
When body is starving for Amino acids, it consumes its own blood proteins. This reduces the osmotic potential of the blood causing tissue fluid to accumulate in body tissues rather than being drawn back into capillaries, resulting in Edema.
2. LYMPHATIC OBSTRUCITON (COMMONEST CAUSE –FILARIASIS )
Another cause of edema is lymphatic obstruction, which results in more & more protein collection in the local tissue fluid hence, the increased volume. Commonest cause of lymphatic obstruction is FILARIASIS (infection by NEMOTODES) such condition is also called as “Elephantiasis” (because of swollen legs).
3. INCREASED PERMEABILITY OF CAPILLARIES (CAUSES-BURNS & ALLERGIC REACTIONS)
Sometimes the permeability of capillaries increase due to burns or allergic reactions, so blood proteins & plasma come out of capillaries & enter the tissue fluid thus causing Edema.
Transport - Immune System
IMMUNITY
DEFINITION
“The ability of human body to resist almost all types of micro-organisms, their toxins if any, foreign cells & abnormal cells of the body is termed as “Immunity”
IMMUNOLOGY
DEFINITION
“The study of functioning & disorders of Immune system is termed as “Immunology”.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Immunity is conferred to animals through the activities of the Immune System, which combats infectious agents.
DEFINITION
“Immune System is a collection of cells & proteins that work to protect the body from potentially harmful, infectious micro-organisms”
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
Protection of body from all types of micro organisms & toxins that tend to damage the tissues and organs of body.
ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONS
Immune system also play important role in:
- Control of cancer
- Allergy
- Hypersensitivity
- Rejection problems when organs or tissues are transplanted.
DIVISIONS OF IMMUNE SYSTEM
- Immune system can be divided into two functional divisions:
1. Innate Immunity System
2. Acquired Immunity System
INNATE IMMUNITY
DEFINITION
“The NON SPECIFIC type of immunity which result from general processes , rather than from processes directed at specific disease organism (Such as antigen –antibody reaction) is called. INNATE OR NATURAL IMMUNITY & the system which is responsible for this type of immunity is called Innate IMMUNITY System.
TYPES OF BARRIERS PROVIDED BY INNATE IMMUNITY SYSTEM
- This system provides two types of barriers:
- Physical Barrier
- Chemical Barrier
PHYSICAL BARRIERS
- SKIN
- MUCOUS MEMBRANE & etc.
CHEMICAL BARRIERS
- Lysozyme
- Gastric juice (Acidic secretion of stomach) & etc.
FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE
Skin, Mucous membrane & their secretions act as “First line of Defence”
1. SKIN
The intact skin provides an impenetrable barrier to the vast majority of infectious agents.
2. MUCOUS MEMBRANES
Most of the micro-organisms can enter only through the mucous membranes that lines the digestive, respiratory & urogenital tracts. However these areas are protected by movements of mucous & secretions (e.g Lysozyme in tears) to destroy many microbs.
3. ACIDIC SECRETIONS
Most of he microorganisms present in food or trapped in swallowed mucus from the upper respiratory tracts are destroyed by highly acidic gastric juice of stomach.
SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE
If some how micro-organisms are able to penetrate the outer layer of the skin or mucous membrance, they encounter a second line of Defence offered by Innate Immunity system.
It is non specific & comprises of
1. PHAGOCYTES
2. ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS
3. INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
1. PHAGOCYTES
Phagocytes are certain type of WBC’S which can injest internalize & destroy the particles including infectious agents.
EXAMPLES OF PHAGOCYTIC CELLS
- NEUTROPHILS
- MACROPHAGES
NEUTROPHILS
Neutrophils (Polymorphonuclear Neutrophiles are short lived phagocytic cells which can ingest the bacteria or any foreign matter very actively.
MACROPHAGES (BIG EATERS)
The other phagocytic cells, the MONOCYTE can develop into large LONG-LIVED MACRO PHAGES when they reside in various tissues of body. ALSO CALLED AS ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS.
- Macrophages not only destroy individual micro organisms but also play a crucial rule in further immune response by “Presenting” parts of that microorganisms to other cells of immune system. For this reason, they are termed as “ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS.
NATURAL KILLER (NK ) CELLS
Natural killer cells (NK Cells ) are the large lymphocytes, which destroy the
- Virally infected own cells of the body
- Foreign cells
- Abnormal cells (cancerous cells)
MECHANISM OF ACTION (CYTOTOXICITY)
NK cells do not phagocytize the target cells, instead, they bind to their target cells, release some PORE FORMING PROTEINS (PERFORINS), that literally punch large round holes in the membrane of attacked cells & eventually cause lysis of the target cells. This kind of destroying the target cells is called “CYTOTOXICITY”
2. ANTIMICROBIAL PROTEINS
EXAMPLES
- Important antimicrobial proteins are:
- Lysozyme
- Compliment proteins
- Interferon
LYSOZYMES
Lysozyme, is a mucolytic polysaccharide that causes the LYSIS OF BACTERIA it is present in TEARS, SALIVA, & MUCUS SECRETION.
COMPLEMENT PROTEINS
Complement is a collective terms that describes a system of about 20 PROTEINS, many of which are INACTIVE ENZYME PRECURSORS. The principal actors in this system are 11 Proteins. All these proteins are present among the Plasma Proteins.
ACTIVATION OF COMPLIMENT PROTEINS
These proteins can be activated by two ways.
- CLASSICAL PATH WAY-Act in Adaptive Immunity system.
- ALTERNATIVE PATH WAY- Act in Innate Immunity System.
FUNCTIONS
Main functions of compliment proteins are as follows:
1. DIRECT LYSIS OF BACTERIA
2. PROMOTE THE PHAGOCYTOSIS OF BACTERIA
3. NEUTRILIZATION OF VIRUSES
4. CHEMOATTRACTANTS FOR MACROPHAGES.
INTERFERONS (ANTIVIRAL AGENTS)
Interferon are secreted by virally infected cells or some lymphocytes to induce a state of ANTI VIRAL RESISTANCE in unaffected tissues of the body.
3. INFLAMMATION
Inflammation is the body’s reaction to an injury or by entry of micro organisms.
EFFECTS OF INFLAMMATION
A cascade of chemical reactions take place during inflammatory response.
1. When injured, BASOPHILS and MAST CELLS release a substance called HISTAMINE which causes.
- Increased permeability of adjacent capillaries.
- Local vasodilatation
- Increased leakage of capillaries.
2. Due to CHEMOTAXIS, Phagocytes & macrophages are attracted at the injured site. Thus Phagocytes literally eat up microorganisms, dirt, cell debris & etc forming pus.
SYMPTOMS
Redness, heat, swelling, pain in injured tissue.
FEVER -(ALSO CONTRIBUTES TO DEFENSE OF BODY)
In case of warm blooded animals, a no. of micro organisms who escape away from inflammatory response to infect some large part of the body, trigger FEVER. It is usually caused by WBC’S, that release the substance called as PYROGEN.
FUNCTIONS
- High fever is dangerous but moderate fever contributes to the defense of the body.
- It inhibits the growth of micro-organisms.
- May speed up the repair of damaged tissues.
- Facilitates the phagocytosis, increase the production of interferons.
ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM
DEFINITION
“The specific type of Immunity which does not develop until after the body is first attacked by a bacterial disease or a toxin, is called “Adaptive or Acquired Immunity”. The system which provides this type of immunity is called “ADAPTIVE or ACQUIRED IMMUNE SYSTEM”
OR
“Acquired Immunity is provided by special Immune System that form Antibodies & activated lymphocytes that attack & destroy the specific organisms or toxins. This is the THIRD LINE OF DEFENCE.
DEVELOPMENT OF IMMUNE SYSTEM (LYMPHOCYTES ARE THE BASIS OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM)
Acquired Immune system is actually the product of body’s Lymphocytic system. The responses of adaptive Immune system is provided by Lymphocytes.
TYPES OF LYMPHOCYTES
During fetal development, all lymphocytes come from Bone Marrow. But depending upon their migration & maturity, they can be divided into two populations.
1. “T” - Cells or “T” LYMPHOCYTES
2. “B” - Cells or “B” LYMPHOCYTES.
1. “T” LYMPHOCYTES
DEFINITION
“The lymphocytes that are destined to eventually form ACTIVATED “T” LYMPOCYTES first migrate to & then mature in THYMUS GLAND, that is why, they are called as “T” LYMPHOCYTES”
FUNCTIONS
These are responsible for “CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
2. “B” LYMPHOCYTES
DEFINITION
“The lymphocytes that are destined to form ANTIBODIES are processed first in the LIVER (before birth) & then in BONE MARROW (after the birth). This population of cells was first discovered in birds where processing occurs in BURSA OF FABRICIUS (not found in mammals), hence they are called as “B” LYMPHOCYTES.”
FUNCTIONS
These are responsible for HUMORAL IMMUNITY
ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM IS INITIATED BY ANTIGENS
In order to develop a specific immune response, the immune system must recognize the invading organisms and / or foreign proteins from its self tissues & proteins.
ANTIGEN
Any foreign substance, that elicit the immune response is called antigen. In general Antigens are proteins or large polysaccharides.
RESPONSE OF IMMUNE SYSTEM TO ANTIGEN
The immune system responds to an antigen by ACTIVATING LYMPHOCYTES & PRODUCING ANTIBODIES (Soluble Proteins). The antibody combines with antigen & helps to eliminate it from the body.
BASIC TYPES OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
The adaptive immune system mounts two types of attacks on invading micro-organisms.
1. HUMORAL IMMUNITY
2. CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY (CMI)
1. HUMORAL IMMUNITY
DEFINITION
“The immunity which is mediated by circulating antibodies produced by B-lymphocytes is called “ HUMORAL IMMUNITY”.
MAJOR FUCTIONS OF HUMORAL IMMUNITY
Humoral Immunity provides major defence against “BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF B CELLS
“B” CELL RECEPTORS
Each B-cell has specific type of antibodies on its cell surface. This antibody serves as ANTIGENIC RECEPTOR.
ACTIVATION OF SPECIFIC “B” CELLS
On entry of foreign antigen, those B cells specific for that antigen enlarge immediately, becomes activated & form two types of cells:
1. PLASMA CELLS
2. MEMORY CELLS
1. PLASMA CELLS
The activated B-cells proliferate rapidly & transform into enlarged effectors cells called plasma cells.
FUNCTION
Plasma cells secrete ANTIBODIES into the circulation that help to eliminate that particular antigen.
ACTIONS OF ANTIBODIES.
After the formation of antigen-antibody complex antibody can inactivate the invading agent in one of the several ways.
- By activation of complement system that cause the Lysis.
- Direct Phagocytosis.
- Neutralization of the toxins released by bacteria.
- Agglutination of microorganism.
2. MEMORY CELLS
DEFINITION
Some of the activated B-cells don’t go on to form the plasma cells but instead, form moderate number of new B-cells, which don’t secrete antibodies such cells are called as Memory cells.
FUNCTIONS
The memory cells play important role in future immunity to this specific organism in case of re-infection.
2. CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY (CMI)
DEFINITION
The second type of acquired immunity is achieved through the formation of large number of Activated LYMPHOCYTES. This is called cell mediated or T-cell immunity.
FUNCTIONS OF CMI
- CMI is responsible for delayed allergic reactions & rejection of transplantation of foreign tissue.
- It provides major defence against infections due to VIRUSES, FUNGI, TUBERCLE BACILLI & some parasites.
- It also provides defence against TUMOUR CELLS.
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF “T”-CELLS.
T-CELL RECEPTORS (TCRS)
Antigens bind with specific RECEPTOR MOLECULES on the surface of T-Cells, in the same way that they bind the antibodies.
ACTIVATION OF SPECIFIC “T” CELLS.
On exposure to proper antigen, the “T” cells of specific type proliferate & release large no. of activated T-Cells.
SEVERAL TYPES OF “T” CELLS
Different types of T cells are classified into four major groups.
- HELPER “T” CELLS
- CYTOTOXIC “T” CELLS
- SUPRESSER “T” CELLS
- MEMORY “T” CELLS
1. HELPER “T” CELLS
Helper T cells are the MAJOR REGULATOR of all the immune functions.
RECEPTORS
Helper T cell receptors actually recognize a combination of antigen fragment & one of the body’s own self marker called. “MAJOR HISTO-COMPATIBILITY” (MHC) CLASS II molecules on the surface of macrophages or B cells.
FUNCTIONS
Helper T-cells secrete the LYMPHOKINES which stimulate the production of both CYTOTOXIC & SUPRESSER TOXINS.
2. CYTOTOXIC “T” CELLS (KILLER CELLS)
RECEPTORS
Receptors on the surface of cytotoxic ‘T” cells recognize a combination of antigen fragment & self surface marker molecules called MHC CLASS I , found on every nucleated cells of its own body.
FUNCTIONS
They are especially lethal to virally infected cells. They also destroy the cancer cells, heart transplant cells & other foreign cells.
3. SUPRESSOR “T” CELLS
Along with helper cells, In supressor, T-cells are classified as Regulatory T-Cells
FUNCTIONS
After the conquerence of infection, they seems to shut off the immune response in both B-cells & cytotoxic T-cells.
4. MEMORY “T” CELLS
During CMI response, some T-cells turn into MEMORY CELLS
FUNCTION
Memory cells protect the body in case of reaction in future.
TYPES OF IMMUNE RESPONSE
The immune system has also the ability to memorize the antigen it has encountered. Thus upon subsequent exposure to the same pathogen responds in two different ways.
1. Primary Immune Response
2. Secondary Immune Response
1. PRIMARY IMMUNE RESPONSE
DEFINITION
The first exposure to an antigen to the immune system elicits formation of clones of effectors cells to develop specific immunity with in 5 to 10 days. This response of immune system is termed as Primary Immune response.
CHARACTERISTICS
- DELAYED APPEARANCE
- WEAK POTENCY
- SHORT LIFE
2. SECONDARY IMMUNE RESPONSE
DEFINITION
Subsequent exposure of same antigen causes a much more rapid & much more potent antibody response. This is called Secondary Immune response. It develops to it max. with in 3-5 days.
CHARACTERISTICS
- Rapid & quicker appearance
- Far more potent
- Longer duration (form antibodies for many months rather than for only a few weeks.)
BASIS OF SECONDARY RESPONSE (IMMUNOLOGICAL MEMORY)
The quicker secondary response is made possible due to ability called “Immunological Memory” of the immune system. It is based upon the long lasting memory cells produced with short lived effectors cells of pri immune response. The development of memory cells may provide life long protection against some diseases like chicken pox.
ACTIVE & PASSIVE IMMUNITY
ACTIVE IMMUNITY
DEFINITION
The immunity which is acquired by own immune response is called active immunity
FUNCTION OF ACTIVE IMMUNITY
Active immunity due to development of immunological memory provide LONG TERM PROTECTION, even in some diseases (e.g in chicken Pox ) life long protection is provided.
TYPES OF ACTIVE IMMUNITY
There are two types.
1. Natural active immunity
2. Artificial active Immunity
1. NATURAL ACTIVE IMMUNITY
DEFINITION
When the active immunity is acquired as a consequence of natural infection then it is called Natural active immunity”
2. ARTIFICIAL ACTIVE IMMUNITY
DEFINITION
Active immunity can be acquired artificially by vaccination. In this case it is said to be “ARTIFICIAL ACTIVE IMMUNITY”
PASSIVE IMMUNITY
DEFINITION
Temporary immunity which is achieved in a person without injecting an antigen, by transferring the antibodies, activated T-cells or both obtain from another person or even an animal, is called passive immunity.
FUNCTIONS OF PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Although, acquired passive immunity is short lived (last for 2-3 weeks), it boosts the immune response of the victim several folds.
TYPES OF PASSIVE IMMUNITY
There are 2 Types:
1. Natural passive Immunity
2. Artificial passive Immunity
1. NATURAL PASSIVE IMMUNITY
DEFINITION
When antibodies are transferred from one person to another of the same species during natural processes, then such immunity is called Natural passive immunity.
EXAMPLE
A pregnant woman passes some of the antibodies to her fetus through placenta. The first breast feeding, the colostrum, of mother pass certain antibodies to her newly born infant.
2. ARTIFICIAL PASSIVE IMMUNITY
DEFINITION
PASSIVE IMMUNITY can also be transferred artificially by introducing antibodies derived from animals or human being who are already actively immunized to that disease. This is called artificial passive immunity.
EXAMPLE
RABIES is treated in man by injecting antibodies derided from persons who have been already vaccinated against rabies. This confers the rapid immunity to combat the rapidly progressing rabies in new victim.
IMMUNIZATION
The process of inducing immunity as a preventive measure against certain infectious diseases is called immunization.
ADVANTAGES OF IMMUNIZATION
The incidence of number of diseases (e.g Diptheria, Measles) has declined dramatically since the introduction of effective immunization programmes. Some dread full diseases (e.g. Tuberclosis) is now under control.
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